Glossary

18/8 stainless steel is a common grade of stainless steel that contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel in its composition. These two alloying elements are what give stainless steel its corrosion resistance and strength. Chromium forms a thin, invisible oxide layer on the surface that protects the metal from rust and staining, while nickel improves toughness, ductility, and resistance to acids and other corrosive environments.

This grade falls into the austenitic stainless steel family, which is known for its non-magnetic properties (in the annealed state), excellent formability, and high resistance to oxidation. It’s often identified by the designation Type 304 stainless steel, which is the most widely used stainless steel around the world.

18/8 stainless steel is valued for being durable, corrosion-resistant, and easy to clean, making it ideal for applications in food processing, kitchenware, fasteners, chemical equipment, medical instruments, and architectural uses. In fasteners, 18/8 stainless bolts, nuts, and washers are popular because they maintain their strength while resisting rust in outdoor or humid conditions.

316 stainless steel is an austenitic grade of stainless steel known for its superior corrosion resistance compared to the more common 304 (18/8) stainless. Like other austenitic steels, it contains chromium and nickel, but what sets it apart is the addition of molybdenum (about 2–3%), which significantly improves its resistance to pitting, crevice corrosion, and attack from chlorides and saltwater environments.

The typical composition of 316 stainless steel is around 16–18% chromium, 10–14% nickel, 2–3% molybdenum, and the balance iron, with small amounts of manganese, silicon, and carbon. This combination makes it exceptionally durable in marine conditions, chemical processing environments, and medical applications.

Because of its toughness and resistance to harsh conditions, 316 stainless steel is often called “marine grade stainless steel.” It’s widely used in shipbuilding, coastal architectural structures, food and pharmaceutical processing equipment, surgical instruments, and high-strength fasteners that must withstand exposure to moisture, chemicals, or salt.

In fastener applications, 316 stainless steel bolts, nuts, and washers are preferred when maximum corrosion resistance is needed—such as in marine, chemical, or outdoor structural settings. While it is more expensive than 304 stainless, the added longevity and reliability in severe environments often justify the cost.

Alloy steel is a type of steel that has been intentionally mixed with one or more alloying elements—such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, manganese, or tungsten—to improve its mechanical and physical properties beyond those of plain carbon steel. These added elements enhance characteristics like strength, hardness, toughness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance, depending on the specific combination and percentage used.

At its core, all steel is primarily iron (Fe) with a small amount of carbon (C)—usually less than 2%. In carbon steel, carbon is the main hardening element, but in alloy steels, other elements are added (typically between 1% and 5%, though sometimes higher) to achieve specialized performance.

Different alloying elements serve specific purposes:

- Chromium (Cr): Improves hardness, corrosion resistance, and wear resistance.

- Nickel (Ni): Increases toughness and impact resistance.

- Molybdenum (Mo): Enhances strength at high temperatures and resists softening.

- Vanadium (V): Refines grain structure and increases toughness and fatigue strength.

- Manganese (Mn): Boosts strength and hardness while aiding deoxidation.

- Tungsten (W): Increases hot hardness and high-temperature strength.

Alloy steels are broadly classified into two groups:

- Low-alloy steels, with total alloying content below about 5%, used for general engineering and structural applications.

- High-alloy steels, with more than 5% total alloying elements, designed for highly specialized uses such as tool steels, heat-resistant steels, and stainless steels.

Common uses of alloy steels include gears, axles, crankshafts, fasteners, tools, high-strength structural components, and pressure vessels. Their ability to combine strength, toughness, and resistance to fatigue and corrosion makes them essential in automotive, aerospace, oil and gas, and heavy machinery industries.

The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) is a trade association that represents the North American steel industry. Established in 1908, it was created to promote the interests of steel producers, support research and development, and provide a unified voice on issues that affect the industry.

One of AISI’s key roles is industry representation, where it advocates on behalf of steelmakers in critical areas such as trade policy, environmental regulation, energy policy, infrastructure, and workforce development. It also plays a major part in standards development, having historically created and published technical standards and specifications for steel products, including structural steel design guides that are widely used by engineers and architects.

In addition, AISI invests heavily in research and innovation, funding and coordinating work in areas such as new steel grades, sustainability, recycling, advanced manufacturing, and energy efficiency. Beyond this, the organization is engaged in public outreach, promoting the benefits of steel—including its strength, recyclability, and sustainability—to governments, industries, and the public at large.

Austenitic stainless steel is a category of stainless steel characterized by its face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure, known as the austenitic phase. This structure is stable at both high and low temperatures and gives the alloy its defining properties—excellent corrosion resistance, high ductility, good weldability, and nonmagnetic behavior (in most conditions). Austenitic stainless steels are the most widely used type of stainless steel, accounting for roughly two-thirds of all stainless steel production.

The primary alloying elements in austenitic stainless steel are chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni), though manganese (Mn) and nitrogen (N) can also be added to enhance strength and stability. Chromium, typically at levels of 16–26%, provides a passive oxide layer that protects the surface from oxidation and corrosion, while nickel (usually 6–22%) stabilizes the austenitic structure and improves toughness and formability.

This class of stainless steel is notable for its excellent resistance to corrosion and oxidation, even in aggressive environments such as marine, chemical, and food processing applications. It also maintains its strength and toughness at both cryogenic and elevated temperatures, making it suitable for a wide range of industrial uses—from fasteners, pressure vessels, and heat exchangers to kitchen equipment, architectural panels, and piping systems.

Austenitic stainless steels are grouped into several grades, with the most common being Type 304 (18% chromium, 8% nickel) and Type 316 (which adds about 2% molybdenum for improved resistance to chlorides and acids). While these steels are generally nonmagnetic, cold working can induce slight magnetism due to strain-induced transformation of some austenite into martensite.

Overall, austenitic stainless steels combine corrosion resistance, strength, and ease of fabrication, making them the preferred choice for applications where durability, hygiene, and resistance to chemical attack are essential.

Carbon steel is an iron–carbon alloy in which carbon is the primary hardening element, typically ranging from about 0.05% to 1.0% carbon and up to roughly 2.1% by definition, with only small amounts of other elements present—about ≤1.65% manganese, ≤0.60% silicon, and ≤0.60% copper. When alloying elements exceed those limits the steel is classified as an alloy steel rather than plain carbon steel. Increasing carbon content raises strength and hardness but reduces ductility, toughness, and weldability. As carbon rises, the microstructure shifts from mostly ferrite/pearlite at low carbon to finer pearlite and, when heat treated, martensite at higher carbon levels.

Within this family, low-carbon (mild) steels at about 0.05–0.30% carbon are easily formed and welded but cannot be through-hardened by quenching; they are often strengthened by cold work or given a hard surface by case hardening. Common examples include AISI 1008, 1018, and 1020, used for sheet, plate, brackets, and low-strength fasteners such as A307/Grade 2-type bolts. Medium-carbon steels at roughly 0.30–0.60% carbon respond well to quench-and-temper heat treatment for higher strength while retaining moderate weldability; AISI 1045 is typical, used for shafts, gears, and many higher-strength fasteners (for example, many Grade 5-type bolts are medium-carbon and quenched and tempered). High-carbon steels around 0.60–1.0% carbon (up to about 1.2% in some specifications) can be made very hard and wear-resistant after heat treatment but have lower toughness and weldability; examples include 1060, 1080, and 1095, used for springs, cutting edges, and wear parts.

Heat treatment is central to tuning properties. Annealing or normalizing is used to soften material and refine grain. Quenching and tempering of medium- and high-carbon grades produce a martensitic structure that is then tempered to balance strength and toughness. Low-carbon grades generally are not through-hardened; when a hard surface is needed they are case-hardened (e.g., carburized or nitrided) so the core remains tough while the surface gains wear resistance.

Because plain carbon steels rust readily, they are commonly protected with finishes such as paint, oil, phosphate, electro-zinc, zinc-flake, and hot-dip galvanizing. Care is required when plating high-strength fasteners (approximately ≥1000 MPa tensile strength) to avoid hydrogen embrittlement.

In fastener terms, A307/SAE Grade 2 hardware is typically low-carbon steel and low strength; SAE Grade 5 fasteners are typically medium-carbon steel that has been quenched and tempered for higher strength; and SAE Grade 8 fasteners are usually alloy steel rather than plain carbon steel, even though they are also quenched and tempered. In short, carbon steel is the workhorse of steels—cost-effective, versatile, and highly tunable via carbon content and heat treatment—chosen when strength and formability at low cost are priorities, with surface protection applied wherever corrosion resistance is required.

Damascus steel is a legendary type of steel that was historically used to make blades, swords, and knives, most famously from around the 3rd to the 17th century in the Middle East and surrounding regions. Its name comes from either the city of Damascus in Syria, a major trade hub for these blades, or from the Arabic word damas (meaning "watered"), which describes the flowing, wave-like surface patterns seen on the steel.

The steel is famous for its distinctive banded or wavy patterns that look like running water or wood grain. These patterns were not just decorative; they resulted from the way the metal was forged. True Damascus steel was produced using wootz steel imported from India and Sri Lanka, which contained trace impurities of vanadium and other elements. Blacksmiths forged and folded this steel in a way that preserved its unique crystalline microstructure, giving the blades a combination of extreme hardness and toughness—hard enough to hold a sharp edge, but flexible enough to resist shattering. These properties made Damascus steel weapons highly prized, with legends claiming they could slice through other swords or even cut a hair falling on the blade.

By the 18th century, the original process for making true Damascus steel was lost, largely because the supply of wootz ingots from India dried up and the exact methods were closely guarded secrets never fully documented. Modern bladesmiths today recreate “Damascus” steel through pattern welding, which involves forge-welding layers of different steels together and manipulating them to form the same kind of flowing patterns. While this modern Damascus often equals or exceeds the performance of the historical material thanks to advances in metallurgy, it is not identical to the ancient wootz-based steel.

Duplex stainless steel is a type of stainless steel that combines the properties of both austenitic and ferritic stainless steels within a single microstructure. Its name comes from this “dual-phase” composition — roughly 50% austenite and 50% ferrite — which gives it an exceptional balance of strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance. This hybrid structure provides advantages that neither phase can achieve alone, making duplex stainless steels highly valued in demanding industrial environments.

Chemically, duplex stainless steels typically contain 19–28% chromium, 3–10% nickel, and 0.05–0.5% nitrogen, with possible additions of molybdenum, copper, and tungsten to enhance corrosion resistance. The nitrogen and molybdenum are especially important for improving resistance to pitting, crevice corrosion, and chloride-induced stress corrosion cracking, which are major weaknesses of austenitic and ferritic grades when used alone.

Mechanically, duplex stainless steels are about twice as strong as common austenitic grades like 304 or 316, while maintaining good ductility and impact toughness. They have excellent resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking, a property inherited from their ferritic phase, and superior general and localized corrosion resistance due to their high chromium and molybdenum content. Their reduced nickel content also makes them more cost-stable, as they are less affected by fluctuations in nickel prices.

Common grades include 2205 (UNS S32205/S31803), the most widely used standard duplex stainless steel, and 2507 (UNS S32750), a “super duplex” grade with higher alloy content and even greater corrosion resistance. Duplex stainless steels are widely used in chemical processing, oil and gas production, desalination plants, pulp and paper manufacturing, marine environments, and structural applications where strength and corrosion resistance are critical.

In summary, duplex stainless steels offer a unique combination of high strength, corrosion resistance, and cost efficiency, bridging the gap between austenitic and ferritic grades. Their dual-phase structure gives them the ability to withstand harsh chloride environments, high mechanical loads, and thermal stresses, making them one of the most versatile materials used in modern industrial design.

Ferritic stainless steel is a type of stainless steel primarily composed of iron and chromium, with a body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure known as the ferritic phase. Unlike austenitic stainless steels, ferritic grades contain little to no nickel, which makes them more affordable but also less ductile. They are magnetic, have moderate corrosion resistance, and exhibit excellent resistance to stress corrosion cracking.

The chromium content in ferritic stainless steels typically ranges from 10.5% to 30%, which provides a protective oxide layer that resists oxidation and rust. However, since they lack significant amounts of nickel and other stabilizing elements, they are less resistant to highly corrosive or acidic environments compared to austenitic stainless steels. They also have lower toughness, especially at low temperatures, and are not hardenable by heat treatment, though they can be strengthened through cold working.

Ferritic stainless steels are known for their good thermal conductivity, resistance to scaling at high temperatures, and minimal thermal expansion, which makes them especially useful in automotive exhaust systems, heat exchangers, furnace components, and architectural trim. They are also favored in applications where magnetic properties are desirable or where cost reduction is important, since the absence of nickel significantly lowers material expense.

Common ferritic stainless steel grades include Type 409, used widely in automotive exhaust systems, Type 430, common in kitchen appliances and architectural panels, and Type 446, which offers excellent resistance to oxidation and scaling in high-temperature environments.

Overall, ferritic stainless steels are valued for their economy, oxidation resistance, and thermal stability, but their relatively low formability and weldability compared to austenitic grades mean they are best suited for non-critical, high-temperature, or decorative applications where extreme corrosion resistance or high ductility is not required.

Killed steel is a type of fully deoxidized steel in which oxygen is almost completely removed from the molten metal before it solidifies. This process prevents gas evolution during solidification, ensuring a uniform composition and eliminating gas porosity or blowholes in the finished product. The term “killed” comes from the idea that the steel has been “quieted” — it doesn’t bubble or effervesce while cooling in the mold, unlike rimmed or semi-killed steels.

The deoxidation process is typically achieved by adding strong deoxidizing agents such as aluminum, silicon, or manganese to the molten steel. These elements combine with dissolved oxygen to form stable oxides, which float to the top and are removed as slag. As a result, the molten steel solidifies quietly and uniformly throughout the ingot or casting.

Killed steels are characterized by their high uniformity, consistent composition, and dense structure. They are particularly suited for applications that require deep drawing, heat treatment, or high structural integrity, since the absence of gas pockets improves machinability, weldability, and toughness.

Common uses include pressure vessels, structural shapes, plates, and alloy steels for tools and automotive components. Most alloy steels and high-quality carbon steels are killed steels because their performance depends on precise control of chemical composition and microstructure.

AKA: Deoxidized Steel

Martensitic stainless steel is a category of stainless steel known for its high strength, hardness, and moderate corrosion resistance, achieved through heat treatment that transforms its crystal structure into martensite. It is characterized by a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) crystal structure, which forms when steel containing sufficient carbon is rapidly cooled or quenched from a high temperature. This gives martensitic stainless steels their distinctive ability to be hardened and tempered, much like carbon steels.

The composition of martensitic stainless steels typically includes 11.5% to 18% chromium and 0.1% to 1.2% carbon, with small amounts of other elements such as molybdenum, nickel, or vanadium to improve strength, corrosion resistance, and toughness. The chromium content provides the protective oxide layer that resists rust and oxidation, while the carbon allows for the formation of martensite during quenching, leading to significant hardness and wear resistance.

Unlike austenitic or ferritic stainless steels, martensitic grades are magnetic and can be heat treated to a wide range of hardness levels. However, this comes at a tradeoff: their corrosion resistance is generally lower, especially in environments involving chlorides or acids. They also tend to have reduced ductility and weldability compared to other stainless steel families.

Common martensitic grades include Type 410 (general-purpose, used for cutlery, valves, and turbine blades), Type 420 (high-carbon, used for surgical instruments and knives), and Type 440C (very high carbon, used for bearings, precision tools, and high-wear components). These steels are often used where mechanical strength, edge retention, and wear resistance are more critical than corrosion resistance.

In summary, martensitic stainless steels combine moderate corrosion resistance with exceptional hardness and strength, making them ideal for blades, tools, fasteners, shafts, and mechanical parts that require durability and resistance to wear. Their defining feature is that they can be hardened by heat treatment, which sets them apart from ferritic and austenitic stainless steels.

Precipitation hardening stainless steel, often abbreviated as PH stainless steel, is a class of stainless steel that achieves its exceptional high strength, hardness, and corrosion resistance through a specialized heat treatment process known as precipitation hardening (or age hardening). This process involves the controlled formation of very fine particles (precipitates) within the metal’s microstructure, which strengthen the material without significantly reducing its toughness or corrosion resistance.

Chemically, PH stainless steels contain chromium and nickel as their main alloying elements, similar to austenitic grades, but they also include copper, aluminum, titanium, or niobium to enable the precipitation-hardening effect. The chromium provides corrosion resistance, while the nickel stabilizes the austenitic or martensitic structure, and the additional elements form the fine precipitates that dramatically increase strength during heat treatment.

The hardening process occurs in three main stages: solution treatment, quenching, and aging. During solution treatment, the alloying elements are dissolved at high temperature. Quenching rapidly cools the material to lock these elements in a supersaturated solid solution. Finally, during aging, the metal is reheated to a moderate temperature, allowing controlled precipitation of intermetallic compounds that impede dislocation motion — the mechanism that gives the steel its high strength.

Depending on their metallurgical structure, PH stainless steels can be martensitic, semi-austenitic, or austenitic. The most common grade is 17-4 PH (UNS S17400), which contains roughly 17% chromium and 4% nickel, along with copper and niobium for hardening. It offers excellent strength, moderate corrosion resistance (similar to 304), and can be hardened to yield strengths exceeding 1,000 MPa (145 ksi). Other notable grades include 15-5 PH, 17-7 PH, and 13-8 Mo, each designed for specific combinations of toughness, hardness, and corrosion resistance.

Precipitation hardening stainless steels are used extensively in aerospace, nuclear, and petrochemical industries, as well as for valves, shafts, turbine components, fasteners, and high-performance mechanical parts that must maintain strength at both elevated and sub-zero temperatures.

In summary, precipitation hardening stainless steels combine the corrosion resistance of austenitic grades with the strength of martensitic steels, made possible through precise heat treatment. Their ability to achieve very high mechanical performance while maintaining corrosion resistance makes them ideal for critical applications where strength, durability, and reliability are equally important.

Stainless steel is a corrosion-resistant alloy of iron that contains a minimum of 10.5% chromium (Cr) by mass, along with varying amounts of carbon, nickel, molybdenum, and other elements. The presence of chromium is what gives stainless steel its defining property — the ability to form a thin, invisible layer of chromium oxide on its surface when exposed to oxygen. This layer, known as the passive film, protects the metal beneath from rust and oxidation, and it self-heals if scratched or damaged.

Stainless steel is both strong and durable, with excellent resistance to corrosion, heat, and chemical attack, which makes it one of the most versatile materials in modern engineering, manufacturing, and architecture. Its composition can be modified to enhance certain properties — for example, adding nickel improves ductility and toughness, while molybdenum increases resistance to acids and chlorides (such as in seawater or salt-rich environments).

There are several major categories of stainless steel, each with distinct characteristics:

- Austenitic stainless steels (e.g., 304, 316): The most common type, containing high levels of chromium and nickel. They are non-magnetic, highly formable, and extremely corrosion-resistant. Grade 304 is widely used in kitchen equipment and architecture, while 316 includes molybdenum for added marine and chemical resistance.

- Ferritic stainless steels: Contain chromium but little or no nickel. They are magnetic, less ductile, and typically used in automotive exhaust systems and appliances.

- Martensitic stainless steels: Have higher carbon content, allowing them to be hardened by heat treatment. They are used for cutting tools, blades, and fasteners.

- Duplex stainless steels: Combine austenitic and ferritic structures for greater strength and stress corrosion resistance, often used in chemical plants and pipelines.

- Precipitation-hardening stainless steels: Can be heat-treated to very high strengths, used in aerospace and high-performance applications.

Stainless steel’s appeal lies not only in its performance but also in its aesthetic and hygienic qualities. Its smooth, reflective surface resists staining and bacterial buildup, making it ideal for food processing, medical instruments, architecture, and consumer products.

Zinc-plated steel is carbon or alloy steel that has been coated with a thin layer of zinc to provide corrosion resistance and enhanced durability. The zinc acts as a protective barrier between the steel and the surrounding environment, preventing moisture and oxygen from reaching the steel surface — two key factors that cause rust and oxidation.

The coating process, called electroplating (or electro-galvanizing), involves immersing the steel part in a zinc salt solution and passing an electric current through it. This deposits a thin, even layer of zinc—usually between 5 to 25 microns thick—onto the steel surface. The resulting finish is typically bright silver, bluish, or yellowish depending on the post-treatment (such as clear, blue, or yellow chromate passivation).

Zinc-plated steel offers two types of corrosion protection:

- Barrier protection, where the zinc layer physically seals the steel from air and moisture.

- Sacrificial protection, where zinc, being more reactive than iron, corrodes first when the surface is damaged or scratched—effectively protecting the underlying steel from rust.

This makes zinc-plated steel a cost-effective choice for fasteners, brackets, bolts, nuts, washers, and hardware used in automotive, construction, machinery, and general manufacturing applications. However, while it resists corrosion better than bare steel, zinc plating is not as durable as hot-dip galvanizing, which provides a much thicker zinc layer and better long-term outdoor protection.